Tag: beginners

Methodology, Sources and resources

How many sources do you need?

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Sources provide us with information about our families, events they participated in or which impacted on their lives, and the places that they lived or visited. The big question is, how many sources do we need to compile an accurate family history?

There are actually two parts to this question:

  • how many sources should you use, and
  • how many sources should you cite.

I am not sure what other researchers do, but I cite all or close to all of the sources that I use on the master version of my family tree which I keep on my computer. My online trees tend to have fewer citations.

One source is better than none

If you have read about the methodology of family history research or attended any lectures on the topic you will know that a family history without any source citations is virtually worthless.

A family history without source citations may be accurate and the creator may have used hundreds of sources. However, without citations only the creator of the family history will know that. Others will be reluctant to accept it or to use it, because each piece of information would have to be verified through further research. And, without citations the creator of the family history will find it more difficult to progress their research.

Extract of a birth certificate which is an image of the original in handwriting
Extract of birth certificate of my great grandfather James Hen(d)

So, one source citation for each piece of information is better than none. It shows you and others where you got the information.

However, all sources can contain errors, gaps in information or deliberate alterations. So, relying on one source for each piece of information is unlikely to generate an accurate family history.

Two sources are better

If you use two sources for each piece of information, you can compare the information. If the information between the sources is consistent, then you and others can feel more confident that the information is correct and that your family history is accurate in that respect.

extracts from two family history sources which are transcriptions of a death registration and a birth registration
Two sources for my great grandfather Thomas Flanagan

Confidence in the information from two sources will increase if:

  • the sources were created independently of each other
  • the sources are considered to be reliable
  • there are no inconsistencies in other sources relevant to that individual.

Some would add to this list that at least one of the sources needs to be an original source. I do not disagree with the value of original sources, but I would include that under the dot point about using reliable sources.

More is best

Even two independent, consistent and reliable sources may not be sufficient.

The more sources that you have, the more likely you are to detect errors or inconsistencies. Having more sources increases confidence that your family history is accurate.

extracts from three family history sources, a typed parish register, a hand written will and a hand written burial register
Three sources for my 6x great grandfather John Townson

You need to use your own judgement, but I would suggest that you need more than two sources:

  • if there are any errors, gaps or inconsistencies in the two sources even if they are not related to the information you extracted, because this suggests that the sources may not be as reliable as you would like
  • if either or both of the sources were not contemporary with the event
  • if the information was secondary information – that is, it was provided by an informant who did not have first-hand knowledge or first-hand experience of the event
  • if the information provides indirect evidence, which requires inference to reach a conclusion
  • if the identity of the people involved is in question – i.e. if you are unclear whether the person in the source(s) is the right person
  • if getting that piece of your family history accurate is particularly important – for example, the name of a parent or where a name change is involved
  • if other researchers disagree with your conclusions or have different information and their family history appears to be well researched.

For more of my articles about planning your family history, go to the Plan page.

For more of my articles about analysing sources, go to the Analyse page.

Post last updated 5 June 2024

Methodology

Which family tree chart is best depends on your purpose

generationsgenealogyaus

The family tree chart is a familiar part of family history research. There are many different formats, so how do you choose which family tree chart to use?

The family tree is a tool and like all tools, you need to choose the best tool for the job. It is not as simple as deciding whether you need a descendancy or ascendancy format. Which family tree chart format you choose should be based on your purpose.

What is your purpose in creating a family tree chart?

Before you decide which family tree chart format to use, think about why you are creating the chart. What do you want to achieve?

The answer to this question will not be the same on every occasion, which means you need to create different charts at different times.

Questioning your purpose

Which of the following three categories is the main purpose of the chart?

  • documenting – recording key bits of information about the people in your family tree and how they are related to each other
  • illustrating – sharing a graphical representation of your family history with others
  • analysing – analysing your family history to progress your research.

It is possible to create a chart that achieves more than one of these categories. However, trying to achieve all of these purposes in a single chart is rarely successful. That is why family history software, for example, allows you to view a chart in different formats.

Which family tree chart format do you need?

Ancestral or descendancy chart

The first format decision is a choice between an ancestral chart or a descendancy chart.

  • An ancestral chart starts with you or another person and moves back through the generations of ancestors.
  • A descendancy chart starts with an ancestor and moves forward through time listing the descendants.
Ancestral chart
Descendancy chart

A family tree chart illustrates how people are related to a focus person. The focus person for these two formats are different. In the ancestral tree, the focus person is the one at the bottom of the chart. In the descendancy tree, the focus person is the one at the top of the chart.

The people that are included in an ancestral chart and a descendancy chart will differ, even if the chart is about the same family lines.

Unless you choose otherwise, an ancestral chart will show all four of your grandparent lines; while a descendancy chart will just show the grandparent line that relates to the ancestor who was the focus person.

Type of chart

The second format decision is the type of chart. Line charts and fan charts are the types most commonly used.

The line chart is useful for all three categories of purpose – documenting, illustrating and analysing.

I like it best for documenting, but it can also be used for analysis as shown by my Tree Health Assessment Tool.

An example of a line chart. There are many variations on this format

The fan chart is great for illustrating and analysis purposes.

The fan chart is a neat format and tends to fit nicely onto an A4 page.

I find that a fan chart is a good format for sharing with people who are not family historians as it is easier for them to interpret. However, it cannot store as much information as the line chart so it may not be the best choice if your main purpose is documenting.

For analysis purposes, the fan chart clearly shows where you have gaps in your family tree. In DNA analysis, it can be used to illustrate which people have been confirmed by DNA.

Fan chart showing confirmed ancestors in lime green, tentative ancestors in blue and unconfirmed in white. It also shows gaps in the tree and how many generations have been researched.

Both the line chart and fan chart formats can be either an ancestral chart or a descendancy chart.

Some family history and charting software also provide other chart formats, such as trellis, dandelion, bow tie and fractal trees.

What do you need to include in a family history chart?

Which people do you need to include in your chart to achieve your purpose?

Is it sufficient to include just the direct line, or do you need to include extended family such as siblings, multiple marriage partners, step children, adopted children? Are there particular lines that you want the chart to focus on?

The answer to this question feeds back into your choice of format. If you only want to include your direct line, then any format will suffice. A line chart is often the best choice if you want to include extended family or focus on particular lines.

A relationship line chart can be used to show the direct line between two people

What information do you need to include in your chart to achieve your purpose?

Names are usually essential, but not always. I have seen many charts produced for DNA purposes that do not contain names.

Birth and death dates are useful, because they help to distinguish between the people in the tree. Alternatively, unique identifier numbers that link into your research documentation may be sufficient in some cases.

If you are creating the chart to document your family tree, then you will probably want to include additional information such as birth and death locations, marriage dates and locations, and burial locations. This makes the chart more useful as a summary of your family history which can then be used for further research.

If the purpose of the chart is analysis, then information relevant to that analysis should be included. For DNA analysis that may include segment size, chromosome data, ethnicity data and clustering data.

Charting for DNA

Charting for DNA purposes is a big topic, which I cannot explore in detail here. If you want examples of how to use charting with DNA analysis, take a look at:

More information

For more tips on charting, see my article Tips for creating a good family tree chart

For more of my articles on charting and documenting your family history, go to the Document page.

Post last updated 18 June 2024

Methodology, Sources and resources

What’s wrong with this source?

generationsgenealogyaus

Errors in historical sources are one of the main reasons why family histories become inaccurate. Here are my top tips for analysing genealogical sources to identify errors.

Identifying errors

The first step in dealing with errors in historical sources is to identify them. There are three main types:

An error in the recording or transcription of information, such as a typographic error or spelling variation.

Death certificate, NSW Australia, naming Thomas Flanagan and children Mary, Frank, Elizabeth, Bridget, Katherine, Jane, Alice
A simple error – Katherine spelled with a K instead of a C

An error of comprehension or misunderstanding, such as when a name is misheard or the information for one person is transferred to the record of another.

Birth certificate for Catherine Agnes Flanagan, NSW Australia, demonstrating error in the name and birthplace of her mother
Perhaps a typo or perhaps it was misheard – Mother’s surname entered as Wolan instead of Dolan. A second error in the spelling of Leitrim, likely due to the recorder being unfamiliar with the place.
Birth certificate for Henry Albert Hend, NSW Australia, demonstrating error in father’s name
The name recorded for the father is actually the child’s name.
Death certificate, NSW Australia, for Thomas Flanagan, died 1928, with an error in his place of birth
Thomas’ wife’s place of birth has mistakenly been recorded as his place of birth.

Deliberate alteration or omission of information.

Extract of death certificate, NSW Australia, for Christina Malchow, died 1893, with details of children omitted
A deliberate action to omit information about a woman’s children.

Causes of errors

The causes of errors are numerous, but they are more likely to occur when the informant:

  • cannot read and/or cannot check what was recorded
  • has an accent that is difficult for the recorder to understand, or
  • does not have the correct information.

It is important to remember that all sources can have errors. However, there are some general statements that can help you evaluate the likelihood of errors.

  • Original sources tend to have less errors, because they are the first version of a source. Errors tend to creep in as other sources are derived from the original.
  • Contemporary sources tend to have less errors, because they are closer to the event and are more likely to have been created by someone who participated in the event or were at least part of the society in which the event occurred.
  • Official sources tend to have less errors because they often follow regulated formats and content, and may have been created by an experienced record maker.

Things to be wary of

Errors in sources may not always be obvious. It is best to assume that each source has errors until proven otherwise.

Sometimes it is difficult to determine where the error lies. For example, when two sources contain different information it can be difficult to determine which one contains the error.

Be careful not to dismiss inconsistencies or explain away an error, unless you have evidence to back up your explanation. This is particularly important for changes in names and locations.

My tips for dealing with errors

  1. Check that source again
  2. Analyse the source and the information more thoroughly – see my other articles about analysing sources
  3. Check different versions of that same source
  4. Compare the information in that source to other sources about same person
  5. Compare the information in those sources to other sources about the family
  6. See what other researchers say about that family.

Of course, the error may not lie in the source but instead be the result of your research method or your analysis.

More information

For more of my articles about analysing sources, go to the Analyse page.

For more of my articles about research methods for family history, go to the Research Methods page.

Carol Baxter’s book, Help! Why can’t I find my ancestor’s surname? provides useful explanations for distortions in surnames, which may also help you understand other errors in sources.

Post last updated 5 June 2024

Advice

Baptised before birth and other silly claims

generationsgenealogyaus

There are some basic rules in life that cannot be broken. Following these rules will instantly improve the quality of your family history and make you a better genealogist.

Rule 1

You cannot be baptised or christened before you were born. There may be some cultures out there that do not follow this rule, but for most of us this rule applies.

Rule 2

You cannot be buried before you die. Well, you could but it would be illegal and downright scary. This rule of course does not apply to vampires or zombies.

Rule 3

You cannot be in two places at once. Unless you are an undeclared identical twin trying to fool people.

Rule 4

If the ‘father’ was in gaol when the baby was conceived, he is not the father. Unless it was a very accommodating gaol. The same applies if the father was in another country at the time.

Rule 5

Similarly, if the ‘father’ died more than 9 months before the birth, he is not the father. Except of course, if science was involved.

Rule 6

Sharing a surname does not mean two people are biologically related. If it did, the Smith family would be one very enormous family tree!

Rule 7

Women rarely give birth before they are 12 or after they turn fifty. If there are children beyond those ages send them back to their rightful homes! There are variations based on nutrition and time period, and trends are changing but its still a useful guide.

Rule 8

Events close in time should occur in the same country. A man is unlikely to be buried in Pennsylvania USA if he died in Paddington, New South Wales, Australia.

Now go out and slay those online family tree myths!

More information

For more of my articles about research methods for family history, go to the Research Methods page.

For more of my articles about analysing sources, go to the Analyse page.

Read more about improving the quality of your family history in my book, The Good Genealogist.

Post last updated 6 June 2024

Methodology

Broaden your genealogy research: How to use the FFANs method

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Have you hit a brick wall in your family history research? The answer might not lie in searching again for your ancestor, but in looking at the people around them.

The FFANs method is short for Family, Friends, Associates and Neighbours. It broadens your focus beyond your direct line. By researching the people your ancestors knew, lived near, or interacted with, you can uncover new clues, solve genealogy research problems and add depth to their stories.

What is the FFANs method in genealogy research?

The FFANs method is a genealogy research technique that involves researching people who had something in common with your family. FFANs could be people who:

  • participated in the same events
  • shared the same parents or grandparents
  • lived in the same or similar locations, or
  • had similar experiences.

This kind of research can help you uncover valuable information and overcome research roadblocks. The method is also referred to as ‘collateral research’, but I like the term FFAN because it symbolises opening or broadening your search.

Why expanding your search beyond the direct line works

One of the traps to fall into with family history research is narrowing the target too much. It is tempting to focus on just our direct ancestral line – parents, grandparents, great grandparents and so on. This feels more manageable and lets us focus on the people who mean the most to us.

However, a broader search will increase the information you collect. This information will help you reach stronger and more accurate conclusions, and help you tell more interesting stories about your family history.

Think of it like a ripple effect, with the person you are researching in the centre

It’s not just that your ancestors interacted with these people. It’s that sources about FFANs often contain information about your ancestors. For example, a parent’s death certificate may list all children, or a neighbour’s land record might provide information about your ancestor’s residence.

There are two main types of FFANs – each plays a different role in your research. Here’s what they are and how they work in practice.

Types of FFANs and how they help

There are basically two types of FFANs:

  • direct and specific FFANs
  • contextual or representational FFANs.

Direct and specific FFANs

These are people who may have sources that mention your ancestor or contain the information you’re looking for in your genealogy research.

For example, the birth certificate of my great grandfather, James Hend, does not state the surname of his mother. However, the birth certificates of his sister Emma and brother Samuel do state her surname. These sources provide specific information about my ancestor, James, that I would not have found if I did not broaden my search to include the wider family.

Contextual or representational FFANs

These are people who have sources that may not specifically mention your person, but are still relevant to their lives.

A good example is my 5x great grandmother, Elizabeth Pulley, a First Fleet convict. She didn’t leave behind a diary or letters, so I can’t learn about her life directly. But I can learn about the experiences of women convicts through sources such as the journal of Ralph Clark. He was Second Lieutenant of Marines on the ship the Friendship – the same ship that Elizabeth was transported on. This is an example of contextual or representational information, provided by a FFAN.

If you’d like to read some First Fleet journals, they are held by the State Library of New South Wales.

Where to find your ancestor’s FFANs

FFANs may appear in the same sources as your ancestor — in censuses, certificates, newspaper articles, land records, probate files.

They may be informants, sponsors, beneficiaries, or simply recorded nearby.

For direct FFANs, start by looking at:

  • witnesses listed on certificates
  • names mentioned in legal documents
  • neighbours recorded near your ancestor in census returns or on parish maps
  • family friends who appear in photos or letters.

For contextual FFANs, explore:

  • local histories
  • libraries for common experiences, such as ship arrivals.

These indirect sources can offer essential clues, especially when your ancestor’s own records are sparse.

Start with a broad list of potential FFANs. Then refine your list based on which FFANs are most likely to help answer your genealogy research questions.

How to apply the FFANs method in genealogy

Next time you’re stuck in your research, remember: the answers might not be in your ancestor’s sources, but in the sources of those around them. Use the FFANs method to broaden your search and deepen your understanding.

Make a list of the people who crossed paths with your ancestor and see where it leads.

Research FFANs, step by step:

  • Start with a person of interest
  • List their FFANs
  • Search for records about those people
  • Compare timelines, places, and details
  • Look for overlapping evidence

Want help researching FFANs?

‘5 reasons not to limit your research to your direct line’ argues the benefits of FFANs research and how to get started

‘Researching FFANs: How to research beyond your direct line’ digs into who to research and how to find them, and examines a range of applications of the method, such as one-name studies

‘Finding answers in a broader search’ illustrates how the FFANs method helps you solve research problems, with the example of my 5x great grandfather, Captain John Townson

‘Researching FFANs: How should you document a broader search?’ discusses options for recording your FFANs research

For more of my articles about research methods for family history, go to the Research Methods page.

More of my articles about planning your family history are on the Plan page.

For more of my articles about analysing sources, go to the Analyse page.

Read more about improving the quality of your family history in my book, The Good Genealogist.

Post last updated 27 May 2025